The Peregrine has long been known for its fast flight during diving attacks, but it does exhibit other flight modes. Normal flapping flight speed is about 25 to 40 miles per hour (40 to 64 kilometers per hour) with a rate of about four wingbeats per second. The flap is quite shallow and seems to undulate down the wing in pulses. Descriptors such as fluid, rhythmic, and elastic have also been used for this flight style. When conditions are optimal, birds will soar with the tail spread and take advantage of thermals. But it is perhaps the high speed stoop that stirs the imagination. Recorded speeds of 170 to 220 miles per hour (272 to 352 kilometers per hour) in an angled dive are cited by some researchers with theoretical maximums of 245 miles per hour (392 kilometers per hour) attainable but others suggest the maximum is closer to 110 to 130 miles per hour (176 to 208 kilometers per hour). More normal strike speeds are probably around these lower limits. Perching on elevated sites is used as a hunting tactic, but at other times, low perches such as fence posts, logs on mud flats, humps on open ground, trees, cliff faces or buildings may be used. General intolerance of human activities near nest sites seems to be the norm, but birds using buildings in cities indicate some adaptive capability.
The hunting tactics are grouped into 14 basic categories but combinations are usually used to effect a kill. Hunting is done during the day and may occur at dusk or in the early morning. Nocturnal hunting has been suggested but evidence is lacking. Some studies indicate that different races of the Peregrine Falcon will employ certain tactics over others, depending upon the preferred prey base, size of the falcon and other differences that influence hunting success.
Perch and Wait
- most hunting seems to be of this type where a high promontory, tree or other perch is used to survey the countryside and to launch an attack at the prey.
Soaring and Stooping
- from high elevation flight, the Peregrine Falcon will spot flying prey and stoop upon them at great speed. The resulting collision usually stuns and may kill the victim.
Straightaway Flight
- prey species are simply overtaken with fast flight and picked from the air by the falcon's talons with this particular technique. The victims are often small and may be killed and eaten while the falcon is still flying.
Low Level Hunting (contouring)
- birds will fly low over the ground, hiding behind bushes, hills or other objects in order to effect a surprise attack on unsuspecting prey. Falcons hunting over the ocean will use waves to hide behind as well.
Accipiter Method
- occasionally in forested regions, the Peregrine Falcon will remain concealed in or below the forest canopy and then rise closely to birds perched above.
Fishing
- the Peregrine Falcon has been observed to snatch Arctic Grayling from shallow water.
Piracy
- like the Gyrfalcon, the Peregrine Falcon has been known to follow dogs, human beings and Northern Harriers and then to attack prey flushed by these "beaters." This falcon has also been seen stealing fish from an Osprey and is known to rob other Peregrine Falcons.
Cooperative Hunting
- occasionally, mated pairs will hunt together and one will maneuver prey into position for the other to strike.
Bat Catching
- utilizing the stoop or straightaway pursuit, the Peregrine Falcon will capture bats much as they do other flying prey of similar size.
Cannibalism
- the Peregrine Falcon has been seen to eat its own eggs when accidentally broken, but it is not known whether this was an action to keep the nest clean, to benefit nutritionally, or both.
Nest Robbing
- there have been a few observations of pre-flight young being taken, particularly of colonial nesting species.
Insect Hawking
- the aerial pursuit and capture of large insects is seldom reported but juveniles appear to engage in this more frequently than do adults.
Carrion Eating
- rarely, the Peregrine Falcon has been seen feeding upon dead birds apparently killed by some other source.
Pursuit on Foot
- observations have been made of birds walking on the ground chasing insects and fiddler crabs have been taken by birds walking through a marshy area.
The high speed stoop of the Peregrine Falcon will often kill prey upon impact. High speed passes using the feet to strike a blow to the victim's head are also used. A bite to the neck is used to dispatch prey whether or not it has died from the initial contact. If they are not being taken back to the nest, small victims may be consumed in mid-flight and aerial feeding is not uncommon amongst Peregrine Falcons that hunt at sea. Larger animals may be taken to a plucking site during the breeding season or they may be consumed near the killing site. Before delivering prey to his mate or nestlings, the male often eats the head. Although it can go for several days without feeding, the Peregrine Falcon will consume up to one-quarter to one-third of a pound of food per day. In Alaska, it was estimated that parents and their brood require the equivalent of 100 ptarmigan or ducks or about 2,000 songbirds during the four month nesting period. Virtually all prey is dismantled before consumption.
The Peregrine Falcon will "flight bathe" by splashing into water and rising up immediately to keep on flying. Usually, birds walk into shallow water and splash and douse themselves until thoroughly wet. They will drink and then fly off to a perch to dry. Long grass wet with dew is also used to bathe and salt water is avoided. A common posture for drying is with the back to the sun and the wings and tail partially spread. Wing flapping and feather shaking is common during the drying process.
Nest defense is well-developed in the Peregrine Falcon but it does not seem to have developed the pugnacious reputation of the Prairie Falcon. Territorial defense includes a range of pursuit, attack and strike behavior along with vocal chitterings. Opponents may lock talons and tumble earthwards and rarely, death may occur during such encounters. The Peregrine Falcon will attack eagles with vigor and possibly all buteos are pursued, particularly the Rough-legged Hawk. Great Horned Owls will take Peregrine Falcon young and in return, the falcons will strike and occasionally kill Great Horned Owls when discovered. Ravens and Peregrines often scrap over the possession of nesting cliffs but the Raven can be a wily and formidable adversary, often inflicting injury to the attacker.
The Peregrine Falcon is a solitary nester but the presence of suitable habitat and an abundant food supply has resulted in densities of F. p. pealei as high as one nest per mile (1.6 kilometers) of coastline. Three pairs within one-half mile (0.8 kilometer) in an inland location in southern British Columbia were recorded for F. p. anatum in 1906. Other locations in northern Canada have inter-nest distances ranging from two to 12 miles (3.2 to 19.2 kilometers) but in Britain, nests as close as 300 feet (93 meters) have been recorded. During the pre-pesticide era, population densities in the United States may have ranged from one pair for every 500 to 20,000 square miles (1,295 to 51,800 square kilometers) but home ranges are more likely in the range of 20 to 50 square miles (51.8 to 129.5 square kilometers) per pair. Territorial defense occurs generally within 300 to 1,500 feet (93 to 465 meters) of the nest, depending upon the identity of the approaching species.
Except in resident populations where the nesting territory may be occupied year round, the males arrive at the eyrie about one week prior to the females. He advertises his presence with noisy high circling flights and high perching displays. Arrival of the female initiates an elaborate, spectacular series of aerial performances that can last for two to four weeks and culminate in formation of the pair bond. In the early phase of courtship, activities include high-circling above the nest site, high-perching, the undulating sky dance consisting of steep dives and pullouts, aerial "kissing" where the beaks touch, slow flights with wings held high and feed out to land at the ledge, and a variety of postures, bowing, cooperative hunting and nest defense behaviors and vocalizations. Later, various displays occur on the nesting ledge by both sexes that include bowing, variations of walking, scraping, and vocalizations. The female selects the scrape to be used for the eggs. Food-related begging, aerial displays and vocalizations by the female indicates that she wants the male to feed her, which he may do for up to four weeks prior to egg-laying. The female indicates readiness for copulation by tipping forward and uttering "eechip" calls and watching the male. He has various displays and calls that he uses to induce copulation interest. Copulation occurs several times per day for several weeks prior to egg-laying. Lifelong monogamy has been suggested but this may only occur in some pairs and has been questioned as the norm for most populations. Lost mates are replaced.
The potential longevity in the wild and for captured birds has been suggested as 20 years. The average life expectancy for birds that survive to breeding age is five to six years. The first year mortality has been estimated as high as 60 percent or more in some populations, with much of this not taking place on the breeding grounds. Population mortality rates of 25 to 30 percent have been noted. Causes include shooting on the wintering grounds for taxidermy, random shooting by hunters, electrocution on power poles, predation, density-related territorial disputes, organochlorine pesticide effects, natural attrition, accidents, and so forth.
ADAPTATIONS
The diet of the Peregrine Falcon, although highly avian in composition, shows more variety than any other North American falcon. As well, it has shown a remarkable ability to adapt to a wide variety of habitats and climates worldwide. It has been suggested that one limitation has been the need to nest in a location which includes the combination of an abundant prey base in proximity to large areas of open air space for high speed aerial pursuits. The prey species must be willing to cross these open spaces in order to be vulnerable to capture by Peregrines.
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More than 250 species of birds are
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